The Frontier

Gallagher states the primary cause of the American Civil War was the issue of slavery's expansion into federal territories, not its immediate abolition in existing states, driving deep divisions between North and South by the 1850s.

By 1860, the white South, feeling beleaguered as a minority section, saw Lincoln's election and the Republican platform against slavery expansion as a direct threat to their institution, prompting seven slaveholding states to secede.

Gallagher notes that by 1860, nearly four million of the 31 million Americans were African Americans, mostly enslaved, while the free states were over 98% white, with pervasive prejudice against Black people even among many abolitionists.

Slavery was a thriving economic institution in the United States in 1860, not on its way out. Slave property alone was valued at $3 billion, surpassing the combined value of all industries and railroads at less than $2.5 billion.

Gallagher highlights that only 4% of enslaved Africans from the Atlantic slave trade were brought to the United States, with Brazil and the Caribbean receiving over 90%, and Brazil being the last American nation to abolish slavery in 1888.

The Civil War's initial aim was to suppress the rebellion, but by mid-1862, it shifted to also striking at slavery, which underpinned the Confederacy's war-making capacity by freeing white males for military service.

Gallagher asserts that Abraham Lincoln based the Emancipation Proclamation entirely on his war-making power, freeing slaves only in rebel-controlled territories as a military strategy to cripple the Confederacy.

The Civil War caused an estimated 750,000 deaths, making it by far the bloodiest conflict in U.S. history as a percentage of the population, a figure revised from the earlier 618,000.

Gallagher argues that the war was not inevitable, citing Virginia's initial resistance to secession and the pivotal decision at Fort Sumter. Different choices, particularly regarding Virginia, could have altered the conflict's trajectory.

Abraham Lincoln, despite having little formal education or administrative experience, excelled as president due to his eloquence, ability to distill complex ideas, capacity to set aside ego, and willingness to surround himself with capable, ambitious rivals.

Ulysses S. Grant, often labeled 'Grant the Butcher,' had lower total casualties (37,000) than Robert E. Lee (98,000) in their respective major battles before the Overland Campaign, a fact often overlooked in his reputation.

Gallagher notes that Robert E. Lee chose loyalty to Virginia and the slaveholding South over commanding the Union Army, a decision deeply rooted in his aristocratic background and devotion to his home state.

The Confederacy's ultimate advantage was its lower bar for success: it only needed to convince the Union civilian population that the war was not worth the cost to force secession, a strategy demonstrated by Vietnam.

The Confederate central government implemented the most intrusive policies in American history until the 20th century, including the first national draft, a graduated income tax, and impressment of crops and labor.

Gallagher emphasizes the resilience of the U.S. Republic, which navigated the Civil War's profound disruption and racial prejudice to ultimately produce the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, expanding freedoms and liberties.